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Context  Despite recent studies that failed to show catastrophic effects of prenatal cocaine exposure, popular attitudes and public policies still reflect the belief that cocaine is a uniquely dangerous teratogen.

Objective  To critically review outcomes in early childhood after prenatal cocaine exposure in 5 domains: physical growth; cognition; language skills; motor skills; and behavior, attention, affect, and neurophysiology.

Data Sources  Search of MEDLINE and Psychological Abstracts from 1984 to October 2000.

Study Selection  Studies selected for detailed review (1) were published in a peer-reviewed English-language journal; (2) included a comparison group; (3) recruited samples prospectively in the perinatal period; (4) used masked assessment; and (5) did not include a substantial proportion of subjects exposed in utero to opiates, amphetamines, phencyclidine, or maternal human immunodeficiency virus infection.

Data Extraction  Thirty-six of 74 articles met criteria and were reviewed by 3 authors. Disagreements were resolved by consensus.

Data Synthesis  After controlling for confounders, there was no consistent negative association between prenatal cocaine exposure and physical growth, developmental test scores, or receptive or expressive language. Less optimal motor scores have been found up to age 7 months but not thereafter, and may reflect heavy tobacco exposure. No independent cocaine effects have been shown on standardized parent and teacher reports of child behavior scored by accepted criteria. Experimental paradigms and novel statistical manipulations of standard instruments suggest an association between prenatal cocaine exposure and decreased attentiveness and emotional expressivity, as well as differences on neurophysiologic and attentional/affective findings.

Conclusions  Among children aged 6 years or younger, there is no convincing evidence that prenatal cocaine exposure is associated with developmental toxic effects that are different in severity, scope, or kind from the sequelae of multiple other risk factors. Many findings once thought to be specific effects of in utero cocaine exposure are correlated with other factors, including prenatal exposure to tobacco, marijuana, or alcohol, and the quality of the child's environment. Further replication is required of preliminary neurologic findings.

JAMA. 2001;285:1613-1625

Author Contributions: Study concept and design: Frank, Augustyn, Zuckerman.

Acquisition of data: Frank, Augustyn, Pell.

Analysis and interpretation of data: Frank, Augustyn, Grant Knight, Zuckerman.

Drafting of the manuscript: Frank, Grant Knight.

Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Augustyn, Pell, Zuckerman.

Obtained funding: Frank.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Augustyn, Grant Knight, Pell, Zuckerman.

Study supervision: Frank, Zuckerman.

Funding/Support: This work was supported by grant DA 06532 from the National Institute of Drug Abuse (Dr Frank).

Acknowledgment: We thank Ruth Rose-Jacobs, ScD, David Bellinger, PhD, Howard Cabral, PhD, Tim Heeren, PhD, and Marjorie Beeghly, PhD, for their thoughtful comments. We also thank Ivana Hanson, BA, and Elizabeth Soares, BS, for their assistance in the preparation of the manuscript. We would particularly like to thank Lisa Blazejewski, MS, for her expert bibliographic and editorial assistance.